With increasing complexity of the system, for example a fixed-bed reactor, 3D-simulation is indispensable to understand the local reaction conditions to be able to highlight the optimization potential. However, in case of entrapped enzymes mass transfer limitations often determine the achievable reactivities. Different bioprinting methods are available to produce structures of the desired size, resolution and solids content. An emerging technique for the production of geometrically structured, three-dimensional and scalable hollow bodies is 3D-printing. When larger molecules, such as enzymes are immobilized, physical entrapment within porous materials like hydrogels is an alternative. However, the available surface for immobilization is directly linked to particle diameter and bed porosity for these systems, leading to high backpressure for small particle sizes. Examples are chromatography columns and fixed-bed reactors. In biotechnology, immobilization of functional reactants is often done as a surface immobilization on small particles.
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